Aggressive Contests in Male Jumping Spiders

Aggressive Contests in Male Jumping Spiders Tutorial of Elias et al.s Assessment during aggressive contests between male jumping spiders Assessment strategies are a vital factor in game theoretical models of contests. In contests animals may engage in mutual assessment; where individuals assess both their own and their opponents resource holding potential (RHP) and make decisions based on estimated differences (Prenter et al, 2006; Briffa, 2008). Alternatively, they may partake in self-assessment, in which individuals set thresholds based on their own RHP (Prenter et al, 2006; Briffa, 2008). Using a statistical methodology which enables the distinction between assessment strategies, the study examined contests in Phidippus clarus, a common jumping spider.The study had three main aims: to determine whether substrate-borne signals are important in aggressive contests, the assessment strategies used in contests, and the factors that decide contest outcomes. Adult and penultimate male and female P. clarus were collected. They were individually housed in the laboratory for a minimum of 4 days to allow them to acclimate prior to use. The experimental arena was a plastic cylinder with petroleum jelly on the inside of the wall to prevent spiders escaping. In order to avoid visual disturbances, an opaque paper ring was placed around the cylinder. Graph paper was used as the arena floor, this allowed movement to be measured. It was replaced after every two trials to prevent chemical cue build up. An empty female nest was placed in the center of the arena. To begin with a removable barrier split the arena into two equal sections. Randomly selected males were placed in separate halves and left to acclimate for 5 minutes. The barrier enabled acclimation and removed potential ownership effects. Contests were observed and substrate-borne vibrations were recorded using a laser droppler vibrometer. Contests were terminated after three bouts, a male was considered to have won a bout when the rival male turned away and retreated more than two body lengths. Male behaviours during aggressive interactions were divided into two phases: the precontact phase and the contact phase. The contact phase began when the two spiders started to leg fence. During the precontact phase males produced substrate-borne signals. The signals generally preceded movement toward rivals and rarely preceded retreat. Following the contests, males were weighed and digitally photographed to measure patella-tibia length and cephalothorax width. These measurements were used a s an indicator of size. A range of statistical analysis was performed on the data. A statistical methodology outlined by Taylor and Elwood (2003) and Morrell et al (2005) was used to distinguish assessment strategies. The results indicated that contest duration, particularly contact phases, were based predominantly on self-assessment and to a lesser degree mutual assessment. It was suggested that males may shift between self-assessment and mutual assessment as more information becomes available or more reliable. In the case of partial mutual assessment, as more rival assessment occurs, a negative correlation will grow between winner weight and contest duration (Prenter et al, 2006). The study found a nonsignificant negative relationship between winner weight and contest duration. This is congruous with partial mutual assessment. It was suggested that relying more heavily on self-assessment to determine contest duration may be an economical strategy that avoids the costs of mutual assessment. Mutual assessment requires energetic demands to detect and process a rivals signals, as well as needing time to process the information in order to make accurate decisions. These costs would be heightened if the signals were unreliable. Hence, self-assessment enables the individual to pay only the costs they are willing to but maintain a high probability of winning against inferior rivals. Â   The male jumping spiders used multimodal signals during aggressive interactions: visual and substrate-borne. Substrate-borne vibrations appeared to be of particular importance, given that the number of vibratory signals accurately predicted the contest outcome. More actively signaling males were more likely to win.ÂÂ   Additionally, precontact phase duration was based on relative vibration behaviour. Males which vibrated at similar rates had shorter precontact phases. Figure.1 Effect of experience on contests. (a) Differences between contest phase duration in different bouts. Both precontact and contact phase duration were significantly reduced after initial contests. (b) Difference between vibrational signalling between different contest bouts. **P et al, 2008) 53/56 of the males that won the first bout went on to win all three bouts. The study found contest experience affected males signalling rate. While winners signalled repeatedly at a similar rate, losers significantly decreased the rate at which they signalled after losing the first bout (Fig. 1b). As well as this, experience affected the time that males spent in contest. Both precontact and contact phases were notably shorter in the second and third bouts (Fig.1a). This indicates that experience effects are important for multiple contests with the same opponent in P. clarus. In the field, males would most likely escape after losing a single contest, so repeated bouts with the same individual may be rare. However, these results important because they highlight that experience, especially losing experience, can influence subsequent behaviours. Following these results an area that needed more research is the impact of experience on future contests with new rivals and the duration of the se effects. This is addressed in a later paper by Kasumovic et al (2010). They found that winner and loser effects have a similar magnitude, but loser effects persist longer. They also found previous experience alters actual fighting ability. They suggested that experience should be integrated into models, particularly when competitive signals or traits are unreliable. Arnott and Elwood (2009) also wrote a subsequent paper which encouraged game theorists to update models. The paper explored how the abilities of contestants to assess RHP influences fights. The paper cited Elias et al (2008) to support the existence of partial mutual assessment. They stated that strategies, such as partial mutual assessment, point to limitations of current game theory models. Arnott and Elwoods (2009) work has been influential, with further work finding winner and loser effects change with age, which is often a disregarded factor in studies (Fawcett and Johnstone, 2010). References Arnott, G. and Elwood, R.W. (2009) Assessment of fighting ability in animal contests, Animal Behaviour, 77(5), pp. 991-1004. Bridge, A.P., Elwood, R.W. and Dick, J.T.A. (2000) Imperfect assessment and limited information preclude optimal strategies in male-male fights in the orb-weaving spider Metellina mengei, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 267(1440), pp. 273-279. Briffa, M. (2008) Decisions during fights in the house cricket, Acheta domesticus: Mutual or self assessment of energy, weapons and size?, Animal Behaviour, 75(3), pp. 1053-1062. Elias, D.O., Kasumovic, M.M., Punzalan, D., Andrade, M.C.B. and Mason, A.C. (2008) Assessment during aggressive contests between male jumping spiders, Animal Behaviour, 76(3), pp. 901-910. Fawcett, T.W. and Johnstone, R.A. (2010) Learning your own strength: Winner and loser effects should change with age and experience, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 277(1686), pp. 1427-1434. Kasumovic, M.M., Elias, D.O., Sivalinghem, S., Mason, A.C. and Andrade, M.C.B. (2010) Examination of prior contest experience and the retention of winner and loser effects, Behavioral Ecology, 21(2), pp. 404-409. Morrell, L.J., Backwell, P.R.Y. and Metcalfe, N.B. (2005) Fighting in fiddler crabs Uca mjoebergi: What determines duration?, Animal Behaviour, 70(3), pp. 653-662. Prenter, J., Elwood, R.W. and Taylor, P.W. (2006a) Self-assessment by males during energetically costly contests over precopula females in amphipods, Animal Behaviour, 72(4), pp. 861-868. Prenter, J., Elwood, R.W. and Taylor, P.W. (2006b) Self-assessment by males during energetically costly contests over precopula females in amphipods, Animal Behaviour, 72(4), pp. 861-868. Taylor, P.W. and Elwood, R.W. (2003) The mismeasure of animal contests, Animal Behaviour, 65(6), pp. 1195-1202.

Milton’s Satan in Paradise Lost

Critics abroad have argued about who the hero is of John Milton’s â€Å"Paradise Lost:† Satan, Adam or Christ, the Son? Since Milton’s overall theme stated in the opening lines of Book I is to relate ‘Man’s first disobedience’ and to ‘justify the ways of God to men’, Adam must be regarded as the main hero. John M. Steadman supports this view in an essay on â€Å"Paradise Lost:† â€Å"It is Adam’s action which constitutes the argument of the epic. Steadman continues: The Son and Satan embody heroic archetypes and that, through the interplay of the infernal and celestial strategies, Milton represents Satan’s plot against man and Christ’s resolution to save him as heroic enterprises. Christ and Satan are therefore epic machines. (268-272) Although Satan may be an epic machine, he is best portrayed as the tragic anti-hero of â€Å"Paradise Lost† or, at the very least, a main character who possesses the stature and attributes which enable him to achieve tragic status. In the Greek tradition, the essential components of tragedy are admiration, fear and pity for the ‘hero’, who has to display a tragic weakness or flaw in his character, which will lead to his downfall. It might be argued that the flaws in Satan’s character are such that we should feel no admiration, fear or pity for him, yet he can be seen to inspire these emotions. Satan’s tragic flaws are pointed out in Book I. They are envy, pride, and ambition towards self-glorification. Satan’s pride, in particular, is stressed throughout Paradise Lost. In accordance with epic convention, Satan is frequently qualified by Milton’s use of the word ‘proud’. Virgil used the same device in his epic the Aeneid, in which the name of Aeneas rarely appears without being preceded by ‘pious’. The most striking visual example of Satan’s main weaknesses appears in Book IV (89-90) during Raphael’s narrative to Adam regarding the battles in Heaven, Raphael refers to Satan as ‘the proud/Aspirer’. Proud’ at the end of one line and ‘Aspirer’ at the beginning of the next gives equal emphasis and impact to Satan’s pride and ambition and it is implied that, in Satan, the two characters are inseparable and of equal importance. Milton, in fact, defended his use of blank verse as a suitable vehicle for epic poetry, as opposed to the frequently favored heroic couplet. How then, does Satan inspire t he feelings of admiration, fear and pity necessary to a tragic figure? Milton was, undoubtedly, conscious that he was in danger of portraying Satan as too much of a heroic figure and made efforts to belittle im through the use of unflattering imagery, and by highlighting his less complimentary characteristics. Nonetheless, our emotions are still fired. Our first encounter with Satan and his rebel hosts occurs in Book I when they are recovering from the shock of having been expelled from heaven by the Son after three days of fighting the angels of God. Despite the defeat he has suffered, Satan gains our admiration by displaying resilience in quickly coming to terms with the change in his circumstances, in remustering his forces and organizing the building of his palace, Pandemonium. At the same time he demonstrates his determination not to be defeated and shows true qualities of leadership, persuasively arguing that there is still hope for battle and victory. Satan is convincing in his first speech to Beelzebub, his chief partner in crime, as he declares: What though the field be lost? All is not lost; the unconquerable will, And study of revenge, immortal hate, And courage never to submit or yield: And what is else not to be overcome? That glory never shall his wrath or might Extort from me. (I. 105-111) The language here is particularly powerful and the lines are extremely weighted, underlining Satan’s resolution. He similarly instills renewed resolve in his followers to challenge God and hope of regaining their former state, claiming that they are now better placed to contend because there is not fear of division in their own ranks (II. 11-42). He then gives his supporters the opportunity to speak their minds as to whether to engage in open warfare or in guile to achieve their end; although ultimately they agree the course of action he has pre-planned – that is, to introduce evil on Earth. Through Satan’s speech at the beginning of Book I, Milton emphasizes Satan’s self-glorification. Satan has no dread of being challenged in hell because he sees himself in the most dangerous position and the one to be most severely reprimanded by God. Satan is daring, which is best demonstrated when the resolve to send someone to investigate Earth has been taken and Satan offers to undertake the task. Milton diminishes Satan’s courage by points out that Satan stands forward with bravado and purely to gain personal glory for any success he might win. Yet, Satan does not volunteer immediately but is only undertaking what his followers are afraid to attempt. Milton’s suggestion is, however, supported by Satan’s speech itself, in which he states that he will go to Earth alone and defies any of his followers to accompany him in case they detract any of the hoped for acclaim from him. Satan’s courage is restored during Milton’s description of Satan’s journey through Chaos to Earth – in fact, the poet dedicates over 400 lines to such – (II. 629-1055) – and Satan’s exaggerated claims to his peers of the danger and difficulty of his enterprise when he returns to Hell in Book X after the seduction of Adam and Eve are not without some justification (X. 460-80). In Book IV (917-23) when the angels guarding Paradise confront Satan, Gabriel also belittles Satan by accusing him of being less valiant than his peers and less able to endure the pain of hell. There appears to be some inconsistency during this confrontation between Satan and the angels towards the end of Book IV. Having become even more steadfast in his determination to seduce Adam and Eve against God’s will and now directing his hatred against man also as a result of his envy of their happy state (IV. 502-35), it seems inconsistent that the next time he speaks, he is so sensitive to the taunts uttered by Zephon, Ithuriel and Gabriel. Although Satan’s scorn for the angels is still apparent, he stands ‘abashed’ and provides Gabriel with the means by which to insult him (IV. 888-90): â€Å"Lives there who loves his pain? Who would not, finding way, break loose from hell, Though thither doomed? † It is important that we believe in the Satan as portrayed in Books I and II: Milton’s argument depends upon that belief. Satan must be seen as being of sufficient stature to attempt God’s overthrow. If Satan is considered too weak, he can pose no threat to God or to Man and there would be no reason for Milton to ‘justify the ways of God to men’. Therefore, while making allowances for Satan’s arrogance in the opening Books of Paradise Lost, he does give the impression that he is ruling hell and it is not expedient to deliberate to what extent it is possible for Satan to succeed in his quest to corrupt God’s good works with evil. The very structure of Paradise Lost assists in creating the illusion of Satan’s power, since we first learn of the expulsion of Satan and his followers through the rebels themselves and it is not until much later when Raphael tells Adam of the wars in heaven in Books V and VI that we hear the ‘official’ version in which Satan emerges in a less favorable light. Stanley Fish in his essay, ‘The Harassed Reader in Paradise Lost,† argues that Satan possesses a form of heroism which is easy to admire because it is visible and flamboyant and that, on that basis, Satan’s attractiveness is only initial (Fish 189-190). B Rajan, on the other hand, writes: The heroic qualities which Satan brings to his mission, the fortitude, the steadfast hate, the implacable resolution, which is founded on despair, are qualities not to be imitated or admired. They are defiled by the evil to which they are consecrated’ (Rajan 190). Nonetheless, it is often Satan’s despair, which comes through more potently than his evil intentions. Satan’s bravado is most clearly evident in Books I and II when he is able to flaunt before his followers; by Book IV, his feeling of confidence and resolution shows signs of cracking, with Satan talking to himself he is revealing much about his inner torment and self-doubts. As his steadfastness wavers, some of his initial charisma also diminishes, as we become more aware of his ability to fall. This argument is reinforced by Milton’s physical description of Satan. In Books I and II, Satan appears an impressive figure, â€Å"In bulk as huge/As whom the fables name of monstrous size† (I. 196-7). He is conspicuous amongst his followers because of his size and his lustre, which, although faded, outshines that of his peers (I. 589-604). On closer examination, however, it emerges that, even in Book I, Milton has been careful to downgrade Satan. Milton states that Satan â€Å"stood like a tow’r’ and that his lustre was like the sun’s through mist. The first simile is bare and unqualified and, in essence, tells us nothing about Satan’s dimensions or his stance. A tower may be any size and of too wide a variety of constructions for the simile to be of any significance. The reference to Satan’s reduced brightness is a symbol of his fall from glory and failing strength; and is mentioned by Ithuriel and Zephon in Book IV when while maki ng fun of they suggest to Satan that his lack of lustre has made him almost unrecognizable. Our fear and pity for Satan can be considered together since they stem from the same cause. On one level, Satan can be regarded as pitiful as much as pitiable. Although it is undoubtedly not Milton’s intention, it is almost possible to view Satan throughout in the light of sympathetic pity, especially if we accept that Satan cannot be something other than what he is no matter how much he wrestles with hons constantly shifting and mounting in intensity, the dramatic individual grows, expands, developes to the point where, at the end of the drama, he looms upon the mind as a titanic personality infinitely richer that at the beginning. This dramatic personality in its manifold stages of actuation in as artistic creation. In essence Macbeth, like all other men, is inevitably bound to his humanity; the reason of order, as we have seen, determines his inescapable relationship to the natural and eternal law, compels inclination toward his proper act and end but provides him with a will capable of free choice, and obliges his discernment of good and evil.

How to Cope with Stress - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 3 Words: 997 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2019/08/02 Category Health Essay Level High school Tags: Stress Essay Did you like this example? Develop a good attitude Stress is a feeling of emotional response to a threat or challenge in everyday life and thus one ought to know how to deal with it so that it does not affect the mental and health status of the body. Developing a positive attitude is a good instinctive approach in managing stress by formulating a plan or action to tackle the impending threat rather than complaining or fearing for the worst that could happen. In todays lifestyle, stress could occur in different ways, therefore, necessitates a bold step of faith and self-encouragement that anything is possible with brevity and strength and having a mindset of positive intervention to overcome the challenges causing the stress.. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "How to Cope with Stress" essay for you Create order Find solutions A solution is as important as the challenge and therefore identifying the weak points that can be corrected and initiating a clear action plan having solutions goes a long way in relieving stress. This focuses on the issue causing stress by providing real-life solutions to uplift anger or anxiety from developing which results in minimizing the time given to think about the issue. Providing solutions involves identifying the core problem such as arriving late for work caused by traffic jam which puts the job at risk, therefore, waking up early is one of the possible solutions and moving near to work eliminating the unknown scenarios that are impending dangers. Self-awareness Being able to identify the root cause of the problem, the risks involved with it and the emotional control helps in managing the stress levels as some people are wholly overpowered making them anxious and immobilized. Self-awareness enables us to acknowledge the presence of a challenge and what needs to be prioritized so as to accomplish the pending activities with enough information to avoid miscalculation or omissions by doing in-depth research of the challenges. Its important to take time for self-reflection so as to take care of issues such as physical fitness, diet or complete daily tasks to achieve a sense of accomplishment and also boost self-confidence which annuls the developing stress and sets the time for reorganization aiming at resolving the challenge. Regular exercise Regular body exercise maintains the central nervous system at a balance which aids in blood flow to the brain and keeps the hormones in check forcing the stress hormones out. Physical exercise is so important in managing stress by a bigger margin articulated to the health achievements and physical fitness as it develops a habit of stress relieve since it acts as a distraction from normal activities and aids in spending leisure time. This comes in hand with practicing breathing exercises by inhaling deeply and slowly making the lungs inflate and exhaling giving a feeling of relaxation as done in yoga. Instincts of the body react to defend therefore dedicating time each day for exercise helps in relaxing the mind and acts as refresh feed in the daily activities especially after a tiresome day. Social interaction Engaging in support groups and interacting with different people helps to reduce stress. Being listened to triggers a sense of feeling of acknowledgment and recognition which aids in releasing hormones that counter stress hormones therefore important to talk face to face with other people. This can be done by engaging in sporting activities such as badminton, joining social support groups of positive minded people with clear aims and goals of helping each other, attending weddings and other social events helps even meet distance friends which prove to be a surprisingly positive medium for sharing ideas and challenges resulting to unloading the congestion of stress making a clear mind refreshment and acquisition of new ideas to think about and even acquire new techniques to aid or eliminate posing challenges. Laughter as a sense of humor Laughter resets the mind and cuts anxiety levels by some margin and therefore laughing once in a day despite the life frustrations and difficulties have a positive effect in moods and stress tensions in the body. Maintaining humor develops an optimistic attitude towards life and even improves the skin pigment to be smoother and nicer which reduces stress and develops immunity. To maintain a sense of humor, however difficult it poses, one must be able to find humble time to even watch a comic clip or favorite television show which results in best healing of the soul and individual outlook relative to managing stresses. Smiling goes also hand in hand with laughter as it portrays the same feeling of happiness which in turn encourages one to be happier, stronger and ready to tackle life by all means possible. Avoid substance and alcohol abuse Many people believe taking substance and alcohol will help reduce stress but rather it worsens the situation. Eliminating these temporary stress relievers is important because it poses a health danger and even financial stress in ones life. Well maintained and fed individuals are stronger and more composed to cope with stress since its not difficult for them to put extra effort in the fight to achieve the best out of life. Some substances cause depression which may lead to seeking medical attention and even unstable mental health, therefore, should be avoided by all means. Enough sleep Maintaining a regular sleeping habit will help the body to tolerate and overcome the stress that presents itself during the active hours. Practicing meditation and stress reduction techniques keeps the mind active and thus may aid in getting enough sleep at night of seven to eight hours regularly. Also engaging in relaxing activities before sleeping is healthy such as listening to slow music and avoiding bright lights is essential for a good sleep. Avoid arguing and trying to solve problems before sleeping as it only intensifies stress so that the hormones are not triggered to work in turn position your strategy for evening activities as a priority for reducing stress and getting good sleep without compromise. Also, its good to avoid caffeine or traumatizing movies just before sleeping to reduce anxiety and frustration.

The Politics Of The Media - 2464 Words

News media Is the American news media being honest like it was to be back when our great nation begin? Many American’s don’t believe the media today because of the views that the media takes. The 2016 election year was one of the ugliest presidential elections in the history of the United States between Donald J. Trump and Hillary Clinton. The news media play a big role in the election as they bring the news to the public about Clinton and Trump. The media is has changed the delivery form the traditional news delivery, to the now comical delivery in shows like SNL. Because television stations tend to be either liberal or conservative and craft stories to appeal subtle and unbiased political news coverage and commentary is increasingly difficult to find. The media has always been under criticism of being biased because of conservatives and liberals coming out and saying that the news is biased. Mostly, if they news is not pretrain in their favor for one of the political parties, they tend to say that it is biased. The part that these political parties are most concerned about is all the undecided voters out in the United States. And each political party wants those votes because they tend to flip the election either way. So, the news media has a huge influence in those undecided votes and if the media is not favoring their party they tend to call the news biased. There are some very good points that come from each side that need to be look at to determine if the news isShow MoreRelatedMedia And Politics : A Brief Note On Media Politics2454 Words   |  10 PagesTawhida Rahman Media Politics Midterm 1) There are several landmark U.S. court cases pertaining to the media and free press which changed the laws on behalf of journalists and reporters. One of the earliest cases of such cases was Crown v. John Peter Zenger. 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